Looking Out For The State Of The Publics Satisfaction In The Es

Looking out for the state of the publics satisfaction in the scheme of capital sentencing does not constitute serving justice. Todays system of capital punishment is frought with inequalities and injustices. The commonly offered arguments for the death penalty are filled with holes. It was a deterrent. It removed killers. It was the ultimate punishment. It is biblical. It satisfied the publics need for retribution. It relieved the anguish of the victims family.(Grisham 120) Realistically, imposing the death penalty is expensive and time consuming. Retroactively, it has yet to be proven as a deterrent. Morally, it is a continuation of the cycle of violence and ...degrades all who are involved in its enforcement, as well as its victim.(Stewart 1) Perhaps the most frequent argument for capital punishment is that of deterrence. The prevailing thought is that imposition of the death penalty will act to dissuade other criminals from committing violent acts. Numerous studies have been created attempting to prove this belief; however, [a]ll the evidence taken together makes it hard to be confident that capital punishment deters more than long prison terms do.(Cavanagh 4) Going ever farther, Bryan Stevenson, the executive director of the Montgomery based Equal Justice Initiative, has stated that people are increasingly realizing that the more we resort to killing as a legitimate response to our frustration and anger with violence, the more violent our society becomesWe could execute all three thousand people on death row, and most people would not feel any safer tomorrow.(Frame 51) In addition, with the growing humanitarianism of modern society, the number of inmates actually put to death is substantially lower than 50 years ago. This decline creates a situation in which the death penalty ceases to be a deterrent when the populace begins to think that one can get away with a crime and go unpunished. Also, the less that the death sentence is used, the more it becomes unusual, thus coming in conflict with the eighth amendment. This is essentially a paradox, in which the less the death penalty is used, the less society can legally use it. The end result is a punishment that ceases to deter any crime at all. The key part of the death penalty is that it involves death -- something which is rather permanent for humans, due to the concept of mortality. This creates a major problem when there continue to be many instances of innocent people being sentenced to death.(Tabak 38) In our legal system, there exist numerous ways in which justice might be poorly served for a recipient of the death sentence. Foremost is in the handling of his own defense counsel. In the event that a defendant is without counsel, a lawyer will be provided. Attorneys appointed to represent indigent capital defendants frequently lack the qualities necessary to provide a competent defense and sometimes have exhibited such poor character that they have subsequently been disbarred.(Tabak 37). With payment caps or court determined sums of, for example, $5 an hour, there is not much incentive for a lawyer to spend a great deal of time representing a capital defendant. When you compare this to the prosecution, aided by the police, other law enforcement agencies, crime labs, state mental hospitals, various other scientific resources, prosecutors experienced in successfully handling capital cases, compulsory process, and grand juries(Tabak 37), the defense that the court appointed counsel can offer is puny. If, in fact, a defendant has a valid case to offer, what chance has he to offer it and have it properly recognized. Furthermore, why should he be punished for a misjustice that was created by the court itself when it appointed the incapable lawyer. Even if a defendant has proper legal counsel, there is still the matter of impartiality of judges. The Supreme Court has steadily reduced the availability of habeas corpus review of capital convictions, placing its confidence in the notion that state judges, who take the same oath of office as federal judges to uphold the Constitution, can be trusted to enforce it.(Bright 768) This makes for the biased trying of a defendants appeals, given the overwhelming pressure on elected state judges to heed, and perhaps even lead to, the popular cries for the death of criminal defendants.(Bright 769) Thirty two of the states that impose the death penalty also employ the popular election of judges, and several of these even have judges run with party affiliations. This creates a deeply political justice system -- the words alone are a paradox. Can society simply brush off mistaken execution as an incidental cost in the greater scheme of putting a criminal to death? Revenge is an unworthy

Free Essays on Early Culture

Early culture There are many accomplishments that I find remarkable from earlier cultures. The boats of ancient groups for travel. The bows and arrows, chiseled spearheads, & fish’ nets for hunting. The woven baskets for gathering, all were technological advances and advantages for earlier peoples. Techniques for agriculture were also improving. People were harvesting gourds, pumpkins, peppers, beans, et cetera. A new way of living had begun. People, now, were able to live in one place w/o searching or wondering where their next meal was hiding. Paul and Timothy, servants of Christ Jesus. To all the saints in Christ Jesus at Philippi. Together with the overseers and deacons. Grace and peace to you from God, our father and the Lord Jesus Christ. I thank my God every time I remember you. In all my prayers for all of you. I always pray with joy. In 1200 BC, The Olmec’s built the first American civilization. Other emerging civilizations included the Maya’s, Aztecs, and Inca’s. These great communities boasted many achievements, including mining and the ability to manipulate precious metals. They built enormous cities with huge palaces, pyramids and plazas. Along with the creation of architecture was the first American language. Ancient cultures advanced in many socially important customs as well, including trade, building of earthen structures & burial mounds. Overall, technologies of ancient societies were very impressive & showed a great potential for future growth in the immerging Americas.... Free Essays on Early Culture Free Essays on Early Culture Early culture There are many accomplishments that I find remarkable from earlier cultures. The boats of ancient groups for travel. The bows and arrows, chiseled spearheads, & fish’ nets for hunting. The woven baskets for gathering, all were technological advances and advantages for earlier peoples. Techniques for agriculture were also improving. People were harvesting gourds, pumpkins, peppers, beans, et cetera. A new way of living had begun. People, now, were able to live in one place w/o searching or wondering where their next meal was hiding. Paul and Timothy, servants of Christ Jesus. To all the saints in Christ Jesus at Philippi. Together with the overseers and deacons. Grace and peace to you from God, our father and the Lord Jesus Christ. I thank my God every time I remember you. In all my prayers for all of you. I always pray with joy. In 1200 BC, The Olmec’s built the first American civilization. Other emerging civilizations included the Maya’s, Aztecs, and Inca’s. These great communities boasted many achievements, including mining and the ability to manipulate precious metals. They built enormous cities with huge palaces, pyramids and plazas. Along with the creation of architecture was the first American language. Ancient cultures advanced in many socially important customs as well, including trade, building of earthen structures & burial mounds. Overall, technologies of ancient societies were very impressive & showed a great potential for future growth in the immerging Americas....

Cultural Quotient Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cultural Quotient - Essay Example Moreover, the ultimate behavior that defines a fine line between the successful managers and the other managers is the Cultural Quotient also known as Cultural Intelligence Quotient. Like IQ and EQ, Cultural Quotient (CQ) is a set of expertise that has been proved to give the organizations a superior authority to survive in this competitive world. CQ could be defined as an individual’s capability to understand and function in an effective manner through the national and the organizational cultures (Livermore, 2010). Changes that occurred in the global business environment over last 20 years Everything in this world is changing, except for change itself. The rate at which the world has witnessed change over the past few decades is dramatic and amazing, both at the same time. The world has transformed into a global village in which everything is interrelated. Every walk of life has been influenced by these changes. The business world is mostly affected by change, in both positiv e and negative way. Factors that served as a catalyst for change are uncountable. They are numerous. However, two of the most important factors that initiated changes are globalization and technology. As Sultan and Chan (2000) have mentioned, over the last 20 years many of the changes in organization have been predominantly driven by two factors: globalization and technology. These two factors changed the entire course on how businesses operated. Globalization is somehow linked with demographic changes. These changes did affect the business world. Globalization and technology have made the customer more educated, more informed and more aware than ever before. Rapidly increasing urban societies are not only changing the whole coarse of societies, but the business within them as a whole. The increased interaction and interdependent relationship between the public sector and the private sector is also changing the whole nature of the businesses today. Technology means, innovation, new things, new designs, creativity - all these terms are synonyms for change. Businesses no longer rely on the trademark and classic products they started off with. They are continuously looking for new things that will help them to achieve competitive advantage. No longer experienced is preferred over youth. Now businesses seek fresh blood and fresh ideas. Hodgkinson (2007) holds the belief that all these changes have also altered the paradigm which businesses used to operate in. Advanced technology has brought information at the finger tips of everyone. May it be an employee or a consumer, everyone has access to information all the time. This information has served as a blessing as well as a curse for the businesses. More information means more variety and more choices. This has certainly brought a great threat to businesses who need to revise all their existing products, policies, practices according the non stopping trends of the world. The shifts of local workforce to the global w orkforce have also brought many challenges. The management practices have been altered. They are much more in consideration with the global culture than one particular culture. The world has now become a huge market where there are customers and stakeholders stretching from one corner of the world to the other. The cutthroat competition has pressured the business immensely. Business struggle is all the time to get a

Leadership and Why it is Imperative to Enforce Rules and Regulations Essay

Leadership and Why it is Imperative to Enforce Rules and Regulations Set in Place - Essay Example The military culture is a unique environment that fosters leadership in each soldier as a consequence of traditions, standard sets of values and ideals and norms of conduct established over a long series of generation of a nation. In other words, leadership is nurture, not nature. Since a military leader operates within a dynamic and politically sensitive environment, it is important that a military leader must influence each and every member of his chain of command to accomplish missions with a sense of purpose, direction and motivation. Military leaders in all levels must be able to effectively communicate, coordinate and negotiate with different individuals and groups representing various organizations within and outside the government, as well as with the local and international media. It could not be more emphasized that a nation’s sovereignty and security depends on a strong military leadership. Military leadership, in peacetime and war alike, must also be solidly ground ed on moral responsibility and selfless service by placing the welfare and needs of the people above all else. It is the kind of leadership that heavily invests on the performance of duties to the nation with the highest of integrity and even at the expense of personal sacrifice by every soldier. A good soldier knows this; he understands the strategic implications of his actions and behaviors on national objectives and takes a professional oath to that effect. And like every professional, a soldier as a leader must remain competent and functional in their designated fields, especially in the midst of fast-paced information and technological advances, and must be thoroughly knowledgeable on the constantly changing national policies, laws, and rules of engagement, as it spells the difference between the life and death. Since a military leader must mobilize his subordinates as a cohesive team, he must develop and ensure a positive command atmosphere to encourage honesty and confidence within each member of the team enough to build trust that their personal wellbeing are being seriously taken care of as well. Although a military leader should not be also afraid to exercise their authority to punish their subordinates who behave counter to unit tasks and standards that may compromise their objectives and missions. The nature of leadership in the military is therefore a continuous and progressive process defined by careful and methodical planning and strategy. The process of cultivating leadership in every soldier starts by proper training and education. Numerous military academies all over the world vigorously prepare the best and the brightest students for a military career by offering specialized courses specifically designed to prepare each student for their chosen branch of service upon graduation in direct response to the need of their respective nations. Such institutions play a key role in instilling values such as loyalty, respect, honor, and commitment int o aspiring soldiers from the beginning aside from honing their tactical and technical skills as warfighters, which would serve them well in time particularly in the frontlines of battle. As developing leaders, soldiers must learn how to always anticipate and manage sudden changes followed by the ability to act quickly and decisively under pressure. Soldiers assuming leadership roles must first determine what is expected of himself and his team, to assess the

Crimnal Justice Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Crimnal Justice - Coursework Example This might be plausible given the hip-hop war tension that was between the west and east coast. Poole believes the hit was organized by Reggie Wright. The other fact is that after the murder a called was placed to the police accusing a rogue LAPD officer Mack. Police found a gun that matches the one was the used to kill Biggie in Mack’s home. He had a Tupac Shakur shrine. Most witnesses claim the murderer wore a blue jacket that was common for the Crips that provided security for a company that B.I.G owed money. Another witness disputed this claim by saying B.I.G did not use many bodyguards. The witnesses who could support the prosecution case are the ones who gave testimonies on the killer wear blue caps. All the witnesses who could describe the murder very well should join prosecution. The informant who claims Suge Knight Order the hit and the one who believes LAPD officer Mack was responsible for the shooting. The witness who disputes the shooter being a real Muslim should on the prosecution. He says, â€Å"He dressed like a Muslim but he was not a Muslim, he was a cop.† The trial process for the murder of Christopher Wallace should take long. The trial will begin by the prosecution presenting evidence to support claims that the death of Christopher Wallace is connected to the hip-hop war and a rogue LAPD Officer. The prosecution would present witness that can give clear testimonies to dispute theories that involve drugs and Muslim shooting. The opening statement for the prosecution would go like this, â€Å"It is unfortunate that today we are here to seek justice for the murder of Christopher Wallace. I call upon this court to act to let the family of the victim feel and understand that justice is real. The case is surrounded by so much controversy, but I am certain my team will produce enough evidence to help the court make the right decision.† The prosecution should focus on asking questions that seek to

Introduction to E-learning: Types, Benefits and Strategies

Introduction to E-learning: Types, Benefits and Strategies Chapter 2. Background and Related Work Introduction During the last decade the amount of literature published in the field of eLearning has grown noticeably, as has the diversity in attitudes and viewpoints of people who work on this subject. The general background presented here with regard to eLearning includes the definition, details of different types and the concept of quality. Information quality within information systems (IS), web mining and information extracting techniques are the main areas on which supporting literature is primarily focused. However, an in-depth explanation of each branch of these research fields is outside the scope of this literature review. The literature presented here is particularly focused on the subtopics of these large research areas which are directly applicable to this research. The structure of this chapter is divided into three main parts: a general view of eLearning including definitions of eLearning, an overview of eLearning types and the concept of quality in eLearning; information quality (IQ) within ISs; and information extraction methods. Each section includes a number of subsections which address the factors that are relevant to this research. ELearning In this part of the literature review, we focus on eLearning by providing a discussion about the definitions of eLearning, eLearning types and the concept of quality in eLearning. Moreover, in this section we lay the foundation for the general concept of quality in eLearning upon which the research will be based. This section also presents a discussion about the relationships between technology, users and content in an eLearning context. ELearning Definition The term eLearning is used in the literature and in business to describe many fields, such as online learning, web-based training, distance learning, distributed learning, virtual learning, or technology-based training. During recent decades, eLearning has been defined in several instances in different ways. In any publication in the field of eLearning, it is important to ensure that the authors understanding exactly matches that of the majority of the readers, therefore, the specific definition used should be stated first. Moreover, to reach a clearer understanding of what eLearning is, in this part of the thesis we present numerous definitions of eLearning as mentioned in the literature. In general, most of the definitions of the term eLearning are used to express the exploitation of technologies which can be used to deliver learning (or learning materials) in an electronic format, most likely via the World Wide Web (WWW). Psaromiligkos and Retalis consider eLearning to be the systems which utilise the WWW as a delivery medium for static learning resources, such as instructional files, or as an interface onto interactive The previous definitions look at eLearning in general; in more detail, eLearning can be in the form of courses or in the form of modules and smaller learning materials it also could take various forms. Romiszowski takes these details into account and summarises the definitions encountered in the literature in a way that emphasises that eLearning can be a solitary, individual activity, or a collaborative group activity. It also suggests that both synchronous and asynchronous interactive forms can be engaged. Naidu also takes into consideration the differences in the forms of interaction when trying to formulate a general definition of eLearning: educational processes that utilize information and communications technology to mediate asynchronous as well as synchronous learning and teaching activities. The position adopted in this research is that eLearning entails the technology used to distribute the learning materials, the quality of these materials, and the interaction with learners. The definition of eLearning used in this research addresses these dimensions in terms of: the use of new multimedia technologies and the Internet to improve the quality of learning by facilitating access to resources and services as well as remote exchange and collaborations ELearning Types As mention earlier, eLearning takes many different forms and includes numerous types of systems. In the extant literature eLearning types are defined following two main axes: the user context (individuals, groups or a community of users) and users engagement and interactivity. Romiszowski takes these details into account and summarises the definitions encountered in the following table, which emphasises that eLearning can be a solitary, individual activity, or a collaborative group activity. It also suggests that both synchronous and asynchronous interactive forms can be engaged. Looking more deeply at the division of the forms of interactivity used in eLearning systems, there are two main types of eLearning: asynchronous and synchronous, depending on learning and teaching activities. Synchronous eLearning environments require tutors and learners, or the online classmates, to be online at the same time, where live interactions take place between them. In this context, Doherty describes an Asynchronous Learning Network (ALN) as a variety of eLearning systems which distribute learning materials and concepts in one direction at a time. Moreover, Spencer and Hiltz express ALN as a place where learners can interact with learning materials, tutors and other learners, through the WWW at different times and from different places. The focus of this research will be on a case where students log-in to and use the system independently of other students and staff members, as well as using asynchronous methods regarding learning content, quality management and delivery which fit firmly into the general definition of the asynchronous eLearning environment. Quality Concept in ELearning The definition of eLearning adopted in this thesis represents three fundamental dimensions: technology, access and quality. The focus in this research will be on quality, which is considered a crucial issue for education in general, and for eLearning in particular. This section of the literature review will discuss concepts of quality in eLearning generally, and highlight the importance of content as the most critical factor for the overall quality. Currently, there are two recognised challenges in eLearning: the demand for overall interoperability and the request for (high) quality. However, quality cannot be expressed and set by a simple definition, since in itself quality is a very abstract notion. In fact, it is much easier to notice the absence of quality than its presence. Despite efforts to reach a comprehensive, universal definition of quality in eLearning, there is still a fundamental ambiguity surrounding the issue. One position is to consider quality as an evaluation of excellence, a stance which is primarily adopted by universities and education institutions. For example, in universities quality teaching and learning are promoted as the top priority, giving less attention to criteria or measurements regarding teaching input into courses, the learning outcomes, and the interactivity with the system. Another trend is to consider the improvement in quality, where quality is improved by moving beyond the set conceptions applied, and generally moving in the direction of a flexible process of negotiation, which needs a very high level of quality capability from those involved. Furthermore, quality can be viewed and considered from different aspects. Here, the SunTrust Equitable report illustrates what they perceive to be the value chain in eLearning in the form of a pyramid. The content is the most critical factor of eLearning. Indeed, to be able to use the internet as a tool to improve learning, the content should not distract learners, but increase their interest for learning. Learning tools and enablers are also important in the learning procedure. In reality, providers of learning platforms and knowledge management systems are key in the successful delivery of content. These companies provide the necessary infrastructure to deliver learning content. Moreover, learning service providers (LSP) are the distribution channels for content providers. One of the challenges facing these knowledge hubs and LSPs is to ensure that the learners are receiving fresh content. Companies focused on educational e-tailing then complete the value pyramid of eLearning. Looking at the pyramid it can be clearly observed that content is the most critical component of learning through the internet. In a similar manner, Henry stated that eLearning is composed of three main aspects: content, technology and services, he also emphasised that content is the most significant factor. Although this thesis will focus on the quality of content delivered by eLearning as the most important criteria and the most influential in the overall level of learning quality, the specified context and the perspectives of users also need to be taken into account when defining quality in eLearning. It is also essential to classify suitable criteria to address this quality. ELearning Technology, Users and Content Although most eLearning explanations focus on the technology and not on the learning, it is important to keep the people eLearning is designed for in mind. Moreover, individual learning styles and required learning materials should be addressed first. Then a suitable electronic delivery method can be adopted. On their website (agelesslearner.com), Karl and Marcia Conner commented, in this regard, that Maybe the e should actually follow the word learning'. Henry describes the content in a way that includes all delivered materials, including the materials which are usually offered in classroom-based learning and that are tailored for eLearning, in addition to any other knowledge the developer might offer. In fact, eLearning systems are considered to be user-adaptive systems, where systems are designed to react with user performance and choices. Webber, Pesty and Balacheff express user modelling as a central issue in the development of user-adaptive systems, whose behaviour is usually based on the users preferences, goals, interests and knowledge. Moreover, they declare that a system can be considered user-adaptive when changes in its functionality, structure or interface can be monitored, in order to consider the different needs of users and, ultimately, their changing needs. In the area of eLearning Heift and Nicholson believe that eLearning systems as adaptive systems are designed to meet the diverse requirements of students who have different levels of knowledge and backgrounds [19]. There is a significant base of literature and research in the area of adaptive systems, which usually base their behaviour on user models. In more detail, Kobsa explained that the user model often depends on one user or a group of users sharing the same profile and it characterises users preferences, goals, interests and knowledge. Webber, Pesty and Balacheff notice that with regard to this point there are two main problems relating to user modelling: to identify the relevant information to be modelled and to decide which method is more suitable to apply in order to determine the relevant information about the user. In fact, personalisation plays an important role in all areas of the e-era, especially in eLearning, as stated by Esposito, Licchelli and Semeraro, where the main issue is student modelling. This is the analysis of student behaviour and the prediction of future activities and learning performance . Furthermore, Ong and Ramachandran perceive that the literature on adaptive systems shows that by modelling the learner, the human tutor and the knowledge domain of instructional content, powerful pedagogical outcomes can be obtained. Although eLearning systems are considered types of adaptive systems, the difference between the concept of the user and the concept of the student creates a fundamental problem in the eLearning area. In this context, Esposito, Licchelli and Semeraro believe that in a general web system the user is free to surf and the system attempts to predict future user steps using the user model in order to improve the interaction between the user and the system, while in the eLearning system the modelling has to improve the educational route, adapting it to the model of the student. As a result it is essential to control and to assess student browsing. The systems should not give the students absolute freedom to decide their way through the content and learning materials, rather, the system should provide a specific educational path and offer a continuous evaluation activity of student performance, towards a defined pedagogical goal. Although delivering web-based educational materials can be very useful as the same content is distributed to a number of students and can be accessed regardless of time and place, this delivery would not be beneficial from a pedagogical point of view if the students, their level of knowledge and their learning style was not known. In fact, Sanatally and Senteni observe that the widely held principle of using the web simply as a form of distributed medium for learning materials does not add significant value to the learning process. This argument leads to the conviction of the importance of developing adaptive eLearning systems. Even if adaptive systems are focused on the interaction with users and changing the course and the content dynamically with their needs, and not on controlling the set sequence of a course, eLearning can exploit adaptive technologies to build learning environments that form user-specific sequencing. Tang and McCalla use the example of the Paper Recommender Sys tem as a good example of this exploitation: the system was designed to give recommendations to students about what conference or journal papers to read, based on their level of understanding and knowledge. We can see more clearly, as suggested by Conati and VanLehn, that the aim of adaptive systems is to build precise, interactively changing models of individual student learning, in order to use them as representations of how learners are progressing within the content of the course. Moreover, Papanikolaou et al. describe adaptivity as being system-controlled and in most cases assists in: planning the content, planning the delivery and presentation of the learning materials, supporting student navigation throughout the field of knowledge and problem solving. From this, it can be deduced that learner models generally characterise learner knowledge levels on the concepts of domain knowledge, pedagogical goals and learning preferences towards diverse styles of learning materials. In this context, they suggest that the domain model should be used in parallel with the learner model to provide a structure for the representation of learner knowledge of the defined domain. Using this procedure , tailored learning materials can be distributed to specific learners to be consistent with their requirements. This corresponds with the vision of Mittal et al., who realised that by creating several broad groups into which it is possible to segment target learners, it can be ensured that the content of learning materials for an absolute beginner student is not the same for that of a student getting ready for an exam. Nowadays, most student modelling systems follow the same method, in which the systems starting point is to create a reference template for a student, thus, the expertise or intelligence encoded into the system can adapt the course organisation and content to the individual student. The use of this method to decide the style and level of content that a student should be offered, according to how students interact with the system, will lead to a more personalised learning experience. In the case of this research, the student and domain model did not entail the complexity of those built in adaptive systems; however, several of the underlying principles of available student and domain modelling techniques proved to be useful. The key issue in most adaptive systems that feature student and domain modelling is a sequence of complex data repositories that give highly precise values about student performance and completion against learning materials. The focus in this research will be on measuring the quality of the content of learning materials distributed via eLearning systems, and establishing how the student will interact with the materials, how they will be able to extract the relevant information from the content and how the context of the online materials will help students to recognise the underlying structure of the content and easily access the parts in which they are interested. This research will gather empirical evidence using online questionnaires, which can be used to directly ask students about their preferences and perspectives. Summary This part of the literature review provided a general overview of eLearning, including definitions of eLearning, a note of eLearning types and consideration of the concept of quality in eLearning. It also identified the definition adopted for eLearning in this study and considered the type upon which this research will focus. Moreover, in this section we laid the foundation for the general concept of quality in eLearning upon which the research will be based. Finally, it presented a brief discussion about the relationships between technology, users and content in an eLearning context. The next part of this chapter will discuss the concept of IQ within ISs; this will be used later on to set standards for IQ in the context of eLearning systems. Information Quality in Information Systems In this part of the literature review we will start with a brief discussion of the terms data quality and information quality, and will shed some light on the concept of IQ within ISs and how it could be defined. We will also provide a comprehensive review of the major historical developments of IQ frameworks. Data Quality(DQ) vs. Information Quality During recent years, much work has been done to build quality frameworks for IQ dimensions. In the past, research focused on DQ, but due to the recent development of internet technologies, ISs today are providing users with information, not only data. Therefore, research attention has shifted to focus on IQ frameworks. While, some researchers explicitly distinguish between the terms data and information and explain information as data which has been processed in some way, sometimes, it may be difficult to discriminate between them in practice . Still, in some studies the term information is interchangeable with data. Likewise, the term data quality is often used synonymously with information quality. Consequently, in this study, the concept of information will be used in a broad sense, which covers the concept of data. Before reviewing the researches that were conducted to formulate (data/information) quality frameworks within ISs, first we will discuss the meaning of IQ and how it could be defined. How Information Quality Could be Defined Although it is important to set standards for IQ, it is a difficult and complex issue, particularly in the area of ISs, because there is no formal definition of IQ, as quality is dependent on the criteria applied to it. Furthermore, it is dependent on the targets, the environment and from which viewpoint we look at the IQ, that is, from the provider or the consumer perspective. Moreover, IQ is both a task-dependent and a subjective concept. Juran summarises these aspects of quality in his quality definition as fitness for use. Similarly, Wang described DQ (which could apply to IQ) as data that is fit-for-use. This description has been adopted by researchers because it brings to light the fact that IQ cannot be defined and evaluated without knowing its context. Defining IQ in a contextual approach seems to be logical because quality criteria, which could be used to assess IQ, can differ according to the context. In fact, IQ is expressed in the literature to be a multi-dimensional concept with varying attributed characteristics depending on the context of the information. However, taking into account the complexity of the IQ concept and that its measurement is expected to be multi-dimensional in nature, the prime issue in defining the quality of any IS is identifying the criteria by which the quality is determined. The criteria result from the multi-dimensional and interdependent nature of quality in ISs, and are dependent on the objectives and the context of the system. Thus, it is common to define IQ on the internet by identifying the main dimensions of the quality, for that purpose IQ fr ameworks are widely used to identify the important quality dimensions in a specific context, these dimensions can be used as benchmark to improve the effectiveness of information systems, as described by Porter. Information Quality Frameworks Today, for any IS to be judged successfully it has first to satisfy additional predefined quality criteria. An eLearning system is a special type of IS so it is important to examine the literature relating to the traditional IS success models and the proposed quality frameworks, in order to test the possibility of extending these success models to identify eLearning content quality criteria in an eLearning context. Much of the work done in IS success has its origins in the well-known DeLone and McLean (DM) IS Success Model.This model provided a comprehensive taxonomy on IS success based on the analysis of more than 180 studies on IS success and it identified over 100 IS success measures during the analysis. It established that system quality, IQ, use, user satisfaction, individual and organisational impact were the most distinct elements of the IS success equation. In a later work, the authors confirmed the original taxonomy and their conclusion, namely that IS success was a multidimensional and interdependent construct. Their model makes two important contributions to the understanding of IS success. First, it provides a scheme for categorising the multitude of IS success measures that have been used in the literature. Second, it suggests a model of temporal and causal interdependencies between the categories. The updated model, which was proposed in 2003, consists of six dimensions: Information quality, which concerns the system content issue. Web content should be personalised, complete, relevant, easy to understand and secure. System quality, which measures the desired characteristics of a web based system such as usability, availability, reliability and adaptability. Service quality Usage, which measures visits to a website, navigation within the site and information retrieval. User satisfaction, which measures users opinions of the system and should cover the entire user experience cycle. Net benefits, which capture the balance of positive and negative impacts of the system on the users. Although this success measure is very important, it cannot be analysed and understood without system quality and IQ measurements. In their model, DeLone and McLean defined three main dimensions for the quality: IQ, systems quality and service quality. Each one has to be measured separately, because singularly or jointly, they will affect subsequent system usage and user satisfaction. In 1996, Wang and Strong proposed their DQ framework, which will be discussed in more detail in the following section. In their framework they categorised characteristics/attributes in to four main types/factors: intrinsic, accessibility, contextual and representational. This method of categorising IQ factors and attributes proved to be a valuable methodology for defining IQ. Lately, several quality management projects in business and government have successfully used this framework. After Wang Strong DQ framework, diverse research efforts were spent in order to identify IQ dimensions in deference contexts. Although these frameworks varied in their approach and application, they shared some of the same characteristics concerning their classifications of the dimensions of quality. In 1996, Gertz focused on finding possible solutions for the problems regarding modeling and managing data quality and integrity of integrated data. H proposed a taxonomy of data quality characteristics that includes important attributes such as timeliness and completeness of local information sources. While Redmans work aimed to set up practical guidelines to analyze and improve information quality within business processes, h proposed a number of quality attributes grouped into six categories: Privacy, Content, Quality of Values, Presentation, Improvement and Commitment. In the same year, Zeist Hendricks identified 32 IQ sub-characteristics grouped in 6 main IQ characteristics which covered functionality, reliability, efficiency, usability, maintainability and portability. Unlike general purpose IQ framework, in 1997 Jarke proposed a special purpose framework where he used the same hierarchical design established by Wang Strong. He defined IQ criteria depending on the context and requirements for specific application; Data Warehouse Quality (DWQ). In his framework, Jarke linked each operational quality goals for data warehouses to the criteria which describe this goal. The main defined criteria are accessibility, interpretability, usefulness, believability, and validation. In 1998, Chen gave a list of IQ criteria with no special taxonomy. He, however, proposed a goal-oriented framework focusing mainly on time-oriented criteria such as response time and network delay. One year later, Alexander Tate proposed their framework for IQ IN Web environment. This framework consisted of 6 main criteria; authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, orientation and navigation. In the same year, Katerattanakul Siau adapted Wang Strong DQ framework to propose their four categories IQ framework of individual websites. Furthermore, Shanks Corbitt recommended a semiotic-based quality framework for information on the Web. This framework includes four semiotic levels. Syntactic level to insure that information is consistent whiles the Semantic level focuses on the information completion and accuracy. Pragmatic level is the third level which covers the usability and the usefulness of the information. The forth level is the social level ensures information understandabil ity. Within their framework there are 11 quality dimension distributed within the identified levels. Dedeke in 2000 developed a conceptual IS quality framework that includes 5 categories; ergonomic, accessible, transactional, contextual and representational quality. Each category consists of number of quality dimensions such as; availability, relevancy and conciseness. Whilst Zhu Gauch described 6 quality metrics for information retrieval on the web; these are availability, authority, currency, information-to-noise ratio and cohesiveness. Leung adapted Zeist Hendrickss quality framework in 2001 and applied it to Intranet applications. He defined 6 main IQ characteristics; functionality, reliability, usability, efficiency, maintainability and portability. Each quality characteristic in the proposed framework includes numbers of sub-characteristics. Several research in IS quality were undertaken in 2002, Eppler Muenzenmayer suggested two main manifestations for their proposed framework; content quality and media quality. The content quality is focused on the quality of the presented information and it consists of two categories; relevant information and sound information. Whereas media quality is focused on the quality of the medium used to deliver the information and it includes optimized process category and reliable infrastructure category. Each category in the framework contains number of quality dimensions. Khan categorised IQ depending on the context of the system. The framework divided IQ into two main quality types; product and service quality. Moreover, it divided these two types into 4 quality classifications and each classification into number of quality dimensions. The quality classifications are sound information, useful information, dependable information and usable information. In addition, Klein conducted a research in the same year to identify five IQ dimensions chosen Wang Strongs DQ framework to measure IQ in Web context; accuracy, completeness, relevance, timeliness and amount of data. Mecella also proposed an initial framework for quality management in Cooperative Information System (CIS). This framework includes a model for quality data exported by cooperating organizations and the design of an infrastructure service and improving quality. More recent, in 2005 Liu Huang mentioned 6 key dimensions for IQ; source (focused on information availability), content (focused on information completeness), format and presentation (focused on information consistency), currency (focused on information currency and timeliness), accuracy (focused on information accuracy and reliability) and speed (focused on how easily information is downloadable). Besiki et all introduced in 2007 a general framework for IQ assessment. This framework consists of a comprehensive taxonomy of IQ dimensions, and provides a straightforward and powerful predictive method to study IQ problems and reason through them in a systematic and meaningful way. Lately, Kimberly et all presented in 2009 a model for how to think about IQ depending on the application context; they identified number of common IQ metrics. Kargar Azimzadeh also presented an original experimental framework for ranking IQ on the Web log. The results of their research revealed 7 IQ dimensions for IQ in Web log. For each quality dimension, quality variables associated coefficients were calculated and used so that the proposed framework is able to automatically assess IQ of Web logs. In the same year Thi Helfert conducted a research aimed to propose a quality framework based on IS architecture. In their research they identified quality factors for different construct levels of IS architecture. Moreover, they also presented impacts amongst different quality factors which help to analyze the cause of IS defects. In this part we gave a brief review of the researches conducted to formulate (data/information) quality frameworks within ISs. However in the next section we will focus on Wang and Strongs DQ framework as we will use it as a base for this research to measure IQ in eLearning systems along the dimensions of the framework. Wang and Strongs Data Quality Framework Wang Strongs DQ framework, one of the most comprehensive, popular, remarkable and cited DQ frameworks, was established by Richard Wang and Diana Strong in 1996. Their framework was designed empirically by asking users to give their viewpoints about the relevance of the IQ dimensions to capture the most important aspects of DQ to the data consumer. In their framework, Wang and Strong classified quality dimensions into four groups: Intrinsic DQ: refers to the quality dimensions originating from the data on its own. This aspect of quality is independent of the users perspective and context. Contextual DQ: focuses on the aspect of IQ within the context of the task at hand. In this group, the quality dimensions are subjective preferences of the user. Contrary to the first group, DQ dimensions cannot be assessed without considering the users viewpoint about their use of provided information. Representational DQ: is related to the representation of information within the systems. Accessibility DQ: refers

Character of Mr. Ramsay in Virginia Woolfs To The Lighthouse Essay exa

The Character of Mr. Ramsay in To The Lighthouse      Ã‚  Ã‚   When reading novels, it is important to understand the aspects of each character to completely get the message that the author is trying to send to the reader.   In the novel, To The Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf illustrates the character, Mr. Ramsay as a husband and a father of eight.   As a husband, he mentally abuses his wife, Mrs. Ramsay, and as a father, Mr. Ramsay discourages and psychologically abuses his children to an extent that makes his children hate him.   Mr. Ramsay has another side of compassion, and love for his family.   Woolf describes Mr. Ramsay as insensitive, malicious, and brutal toward his family, but he also desires happiness and wants the best for his family.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although Mr. Ramsay often scolds and mentally abuses Mrs. Ramsay, all he wants is love and affection from his wife.   For example, when Mrs. Ramsay lies to James about the next day's weather, "There wasn't the slightest chance that we could go to the lighthouse tomorrow" (31).   This comment shows that, if Mr. Ramsay doesn't want to do something, they are not going to do it.   During the same conversation Mr. Ramsay say something that he would later realize he shouldn't of said.   Mr. Ramsay regrets getting upset at his wife for no reason and he is ashamed of the actions that he took.   As a result of hurt that he caused his wife, Mr. Ramsay wants to make her happy again.      Next, the novel displays Mr. Ramsay's insensitivity towards Mrs. Ramsay when his comments make her "bend her head as if to let the pelt of jagged hail, the drench the dirty water, bespatter her unrebuked" (32).   This illustrates Mr. Ramsay as heartless to other's feelings, it seems like he enjoys torm... ... are abusive, but he also has the positive traits of sincerity and sensitivity toward his family.   Woolf illustrated Mr. Ramsay as both mentally abusive, but also loving and caring toward his wife, Mrs. Ramsay.   Mr. Ramsay is very harsh and critical toward his children because he wants the best for them and for them to become self-sufficient, but his children do not realize this and makes them hate being around their father.   Woolf does not describe Mr. Ramsay as only bad or good, but she describes him as a real person with personality flaws.   She does this because it makes it easier for the reader to understand the individual as a whole, instead of just a fictitious character.   By using this writing technique, Woolf allows the readers to fully grasp the concept of the character.    Works Cited Woolf, Virginia.   To The Lighthouse.   New York: Harvest, 1955.

Becoming Ecology: Changing Perspectives of the Human Habitat

Becoming Ecology Populating in context of all living things in clip and infinite, and the paradox of seeing habitat all around but entree is denied through the human concept of private belongings ) Changing Positions We now operate an amodern fundamental law, where we must contextualize ‘humans’ or ‘culture, ’ ‘nature or ‘place’ or so any of the other ‘noun chunks’ used to train and order world through the modernist fundamental law, as it all appears to be merely happenstances unifying and emerging ( Anderson, ) . We must accommodate the concepts that modern society has generated, with the world. Many writers have attempted to depict their image of nature. Buijs ( 2009 ) described five images of nature ; wilderness, autonomic, inclusive, aesthetic and functional. The ‘inclusive’ image refers to a nature that expresses peaceable coexistence with adult male and nature is regarded as beautiful. When humanity invents ( speaks ) itself extemporarily outside ‘nature’s text, ’ it has non, on a cardinal degree, at large nature, for it is and ever will be a merchandise of nature ( Conesa-Sevilla, 2010 ) . This alienation from ecology has arisen from a long history of our being ostracised from the land, Jay Griffiths ( 2008 ) refers to John Bellers’ ( 1654-1725 ) remarks: ‘forests and great parks make the hapless that are upon them excessively much like Indians.’ Indeed Griffiths describes commonland as one time being ‘a hinderance to industry.’ Worlds have become estranged from their ain being through the concepts most prevailing in the modern societies and it is now that positions of our ineluctable integrating into ecology are granted acknowledgment. Writers have tried to depict this dynamic holistic theory, making a new individuality for us all. The more-than-human universe ( Abram, 1997 ) or the more than human kingdom ( Instone L 2014 ) and Gaia are portion of the new languaging undertaking necessary to double up this universe of relationships into duologue. The duologue is grounded in ecology and Earth scientific disciplines, doctrine and evolutionary history. It alludes to something that is so inclusive, so emergent, so living, that it is besides infused in thaumaturgy and mythology. Relationship between people and environment is present in the most traditional of civilizations. Smohala and Black Elk represent a charming vision of nature, in the truest sense of the word magical. The strong belief that the universe is there to be communicated with, that it can be prayed to, that there can be a transactory relationship between people and their environment ( Roszak talk, 1971 referred to in Coope, 2010 ) . Deep ecology, social-ecology, ecopychology and many other watercourses of idea explore ‘Nature connection’ and besides ‘ecological literacy.’ Most research workers are construing ‘context and relationships’ in some manner so that we may do sense of or go cognizant of the universe. Our literacy of it, our languaging, our duologue is continuously going. ‘The trouble of utilizing the nomenclature is that no ecopsychologist has put forth a believable ( ie, widely accepted and testable ) operational definition of what ‘connecting with nature’ is’ ( Conesa-Sevilla, 2010 ) . Conesa-Sevilla quoted Kull ( 1998 ) : Like most people the ecospychologist enters the wonts oflanguaging, copying others without due analysis and contemplation on what these words could intend. The duologue of connection and holistic integrating will go on to germinate but the significances will derive true acknowledgment as position and linguistic communication becomesintegrated action, when worlds as the more-than-human universe Begin to make things for common advantage, for the involvement of the meta-organism. Working as one, bing as one. The human is already recognized as meta-organism, of which many microbic species are working in mutualism, multiple species working in long-run mutualistic relationships. Cell development is inherently derived from symbiotic relationships ( see Margulis, Capra ) . Much of the ecology on Earth is symbiotic ( besides see Harding ) . In the walking group methodological analysis in this research worlds are working as a meta-organism, construing the host landscapes. We eat together, research our milieus, we use multiple senses as a centripetal array to construe the universe, parts doing a whole. As mycelium works with the host environment and other beings, so is the walking group working in mutualism with the social-ecological landscape. There is an exchange of resources and information. When organisms work in mutualism or as meta-organism, we are inventing ways of co-habiting, of bring forthing healthy home ground. Exciting new ways of co-creating home ground, pass oning and working in mutualism among living things in the more than human kingdom, require thoughts to go action. When humans become agents in common relationships with each other and other species in home ground we are going ecosystem by individuality. Action takes on new relevancy, betterments to habitat go the function of the human-ecology mutualism. Furthermore when we are engaged in common action, co-habitation, we are needfully larning every bit good. As the ecosystem in action, we have to larn from what we have around us, continuously interacting with each other and construing the kineticss. It is evident that some topographic points as home ground are non peculiarly healthy. It is besides known that there exists proficient ability and familial diverseness from which ecosystems can be brought up to wellness. Nijhuiss et Al. ( 2011 ) described how the gait of land-use development has exceeded human evolutionary version, peculiarly with mention to agribusiness. They province that this is what fuels our temperament towards nature. However, possibly we are accommodating if we consider the finer landscapes in the Westcountry. It is seldom wild naturalness that we see in this part, connection in this human influenced bio-region is to see a social-ecological system. It is besides more than Appleton’s prospect-refuge theory ( 1996 ) where a relationship to the perceived environment is comparable to an animate being to its home ground, informed by our opportunities of endurance. We like to see without being seen, we prefer landscapes that let us to conceal every bit good as to study the environment. Harmonizing to Appleton, likely those who argue that we have an unconditioned penchant towards nature conflate nature with flora. It is the flora, non the naturalness, which triggers congenital mental temperaments to like those landscapes. There is something more affectional and more holistic than a temperament towards flora at work here. It is more. The animate being and home ground are one in the same. It is experience, ‘deep ecology emerges out of deep experience of nature’ ( Kumar, 2013 ) , and it is relationship: ‘The counterpoison to capitalist rationalisation is a new relationality, an empathic, animal and rational manner of associating that is profoundly concerted, enjoyable and meaningful’ ( Heller, 1999 ) this involves the more than human universe ( Heckert, 2010 ) . There is ‘no ego without topographic point and no topographic point without self’ therefore it necessitates that we engage with landscape, our immediate life home ground, more readily, for mutualism, forourwellness. Griffiths wrote that ‘enclosure crushed the liquors of the common people. For centuries communal carnivals were held on the parks. They were wild in character: bawdry, exuberant, unfettered, they were a common natural state of the human spirit, which demented by claustrophobia, hates to be cooped up, enclosed, indoors’ ( Griffiths, 2008 ) . In this part we have a human altered landscape where portion or about all the home ground is in private owned. For us here we need to be symbiotic with other worlds to make the home ground that we have a temperament towards life in, viz. one that sustains us really efficaciously and where we are free to interact. We can non run into a temperament toward flora and diverseness, relationship and experience without going symbiotic, by larning to be in common relationship with the landscape. To handle the full country as home ground, as the ego, we have to entree as much of it as possible and cognize it good, acquaintance in order to do the home ground map for all. This does intend that we have to go Wilder more intuitive, as home ground and animate being, more active. Taking action with habitat rather literally means non waiting for top-down determination devising to better your universe for you. You work it out for yourself with your meta-organisms. If something is non right with home ground ; repair it or better it with other worlds, workss and animate beings. The option is to envelop the ego psychologically and physically in boundary lines, boundaries or boxes- leting yourself claustrophobia and small influence on how your home ground is making, which is barely relationship at all. That is non ecosystem in action. Human ecological-effort ; inventiveness and interaction, is the most immediate manner of taking action as an incorporate homo, as a more than human being.

Sources for Rrl

Fajnzylber, Lederman and Loaysa (2002) – (Fajnzylber, P. , Lederman, D. and N. Loayza (2000). â€Å"Crime and Victimization: An Economic Perspective†, mimeo) â€Å"In fact the economics of crime interacts with different and heterogeneous fields (i. e. sociology, criminology, psychiatry and geography). It is closely related to poverty, social exclusion, wage and income inequality, cultural and family background, level of education and other economic and social factors that may affect individual’s propensity to commit crimes such as cultural characteristics, age and sex. â€Å" A spatial analysis of neighborhood crime in omaha, Nebraska using alternative measures of crime rates. By haifeng zhang and Michael p. peterson. internet journal of criminology 2007 Many researchers – (Ackerman (1998), Anselin (2000), Kershaw and Tseloni (2005), Nagle (1995), Osborn et al (1992). ) Substantial neighborhood crime research has documented that urban crime occurs most frequently in stressful and disadvantaged areas with disproportional concentration of poverty, unemployment and minority populations. The social disorganization theory argues that socio-economic stress (e. g. poverty, racial/ethnic issues, etc) undermines social control level and strikes the foundations of social cohesion, which results in occurrence of crime. The routine activity approach/theory claims that criminal activities are related to social environment and the behavior patterns of people who live in the neighborhood or community. Unfavorable environment settings (poverty, low education or li teracy and unemployment) are frequently used to evaluate the effects of crime correlates. (CRIME AND POVERTY) Fleisher (1963-1966) – (Fleisher, B. , (1966), â€Å"The Effects of Income Delinquency†, American Economic Review, 56 (1/2). Pp. 118-137) â€Å"The principal theoretical reason for believing that low income increases the tendency to commit crime is that it raises the relative cost of engaging in legitimate activity and that the probable cost of getting caught is relatively low, since they (low-income individuals) view their legitimate lifetime earnings prospects dismally they may expect to lose relatively little earning potential by acquiring criminal records, furthermore, if legitimate earnings are low, the opportunity of lifetime actually spent in delinquent activity, or in jail is also low (Fleisher 1966, p. 20)† Marc Hooghe, Bram Vanhoutte, Vim Hardyns and Tuba Bircan. Unemployment, Inequality, Poverty and Crime. Spatial Distribution Patterns of Criminal Acts in Belgium 2001-2006. British Journal of Criminology, 51 (1), pp. 1-20. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011. A concentration of poverty, a lack of resources and various indicators for social disorganization have all been invoked to explain a concentration of crime. Pg1 Kelly (2000) – (Kelly, M. , (2000). â€Å"Inequality and Crime†. The Review of Economics and Statitics, 82 (4), pp. 30-539) â€Å"in the economics theory of crime, areas of high inequality place poor individuals who have low returns from market activity next to high-income individuals who have goods worth taking, thereby increasing the returns to time allocated to criminal activity† â€Å"strain theory argues that, when faced with the relative success of others around them, unsuccessful individuals feel frustration at their situation. The greater the inequality, the higher this strain and the greater the inducement for low0status individuals to commit crime† Machin and Meghir (2004) (Machin, Stephen and Costas Meghir. â€Å"Crime and Economic Incentives. † National Bureau of Economic Research. 9 Feb 2009 ) When there are larger numbers of people with low wage rates, the crime rate usually goes up. Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Many of the most popular theories of criminal behavior have focused on poverty as a major causal factor (Mesnner and South 1986:977) pg 36 Deteriorated neighborhood conditions in an urban area were almost always associated with higher rates of official crime. Pg 237 (CRIME AND EDUCATION) (the socioeconomic determinants of crime. A review of literature. Paolo buonanno. Univerita degli studi di Milano-bicocca. p18) Crime appears to be strictly related to the level of education attained and to individual’s economic and social background. Freeman (1991,1996), Grogger (1995,1998) and more recently Lochner and Moretti (2001) attempt to clearly identify the relationships between crime and education. – Usher (1997) (Usher, D. , (1997). â€Å"Education as Deterrent to Crime†. Canadian Journal of Economics, 30 (2), pp. 367-84. ) â€Å"Education promotes good citizenship. Education does more than teach skills to enhance one’s capacity to earn income. It perpetuates the values of society, enculturates people to serve their communities and promotes virtues of hard work and honesty. † Education may also have a â€Å"civilization effect,† tending to reduce the incidence of criminal activity. Ehrlich (1975, p. 333) (Elrich,I. , (1975). â€Å"On the Relation between Education and Crime†. In Juster, F. T. (Ed. ), Education, Income and Human Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 313-337. ) Positive relationship between the average number of school years completed by the adult population (over 25 years) and particularly property crimes committed across the U. S. in 1960 Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) (Wilson, J. Q. and R. Herrnstein (1985). Crime and Human Nature. New York: Simon and Schuster) Several studies have shown that criminals tend to be less educated and from poorer economic backgrounds than non-criminals. Lochner (1999) (Lochner, L. , (1999). Education, Work and Crime: Theory and Evidence†, Working Paper No 465, Center for Economic Research (RCER) – University of Rchester) â€Å"crime is primarily a problem among young educated men. Individuals with low skill level are more likely to participate in criminal activities because the returns they can earn from work or school are low. Both high school graduation and ability directly lower criminal propen sities† p. 34 Lochner and Moretti- (Lochner, L. and E. Moretti (2001). â€Å"The effect of education on crime: evidence from prison inmates, arrests and self-reports†, NBER Working-Paper no. 605) â€Å"Schooling increases the returns to legitimate work, raising the opportunity costs of illegal behavior. † P. 1 â€Å"Schooling significantly reduces criminal activity† p. 30 Education and Crime. Lancer Lochner. University of Western Ontario. December 13, 2007. Empirically there is a strong negative correlation between educational attainment and various measures of crime. Using OLS, Lochner and Morretti (2004) estimate that one-year increase in average education levels in a state reduces state-level arrest rates by 11 percent. pg9 Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK The vast majority of studies have concluded that as an individual’s years of education increase, his or her probability of criminal behavior decreases. Two studies of the relationship between years of education and antisocial behavior both concluded that a significant negative correlation existed. Pg 36 The crime reducing effect of education. Stephen machin, Olivier marie. Suncica vujic. Institute for the Study of Labor discussion paper no. 5000. June 2010. IZA Bonn Germany Pg 2-4 There are a number of theoretical reasons why education may have an effect on crime. From the existing socio-economic literature there are (at least) three main channels through which schooling might affect criminal participation: income effects (education increases the returns to legitimate work raising the opportunity costs of illegal behavior therefore, those who can earn more are less likely to engage in crime), time availability (time spent in education may also be important in terms of limiting the time available for participating in criminal activity. The time spent at school during the year is negatively correlated to the probability of arrest that year. It was found that property crime increases significantly in areas where youths have days off school) and patience or risk aversion. For most crimes, one would expect that these factors induce a negative effect of schooling on crime. CRIME AND UNEMPLOYMENT Arvantes and Delfina 2006 High unemployment rates also provide incentives to perform all kinds of criminal acts. John P. Allison (1972) (Allison, John P. Economic Factors and the rate of Crime. † Land Economics 48 (1972): 193-96. JSTOR. 9 Feb 2009 ) Allison finds that unemployment rate is one of the biggest factors that contribute toward crime rates. Both unemployment and poverty rates have significant and positive effects on crime rate. Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Pg 107 Regarding the frequency of unemployment, numerous studies have been conducted with res pect to criminality. The majority of these studies have indicated that frequently unemployed persons are more likely to have a criminal record In Ehrlich model, individuals divide their time between legal activates and risky illegal activities. If legal income opportunites become scare relative to potential gains in crime, the model predicts that crime will become more frequent. Increased unemployment could be one such factor. Identifying the effect of unemployment and crime. Steven Raphael and Rudolf winter-ebmer. Journal of law and economics. Vol. xliv. April 2001. The university of chicago Pg 260 Declines in crime rates may be due in part to the current absence of legal employment opportunities. To the extent that increase legitimate employment opportunities deter potential offender from committing crimes, a decline in the unemployment rate such as that observed during the 1990s may be said to cause the declines in crime rate. CRIME AND LITERACY Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Pg 150 The vast majority of studies have found that individuals who receive high grades tend to be less criminal than those with low grades. The academic performance of delinquents and criminals tends to be especially poor in those subject areas requiring reading and other linguistic skills rather than in areas where the primary demands are on mathematical and scientific reasoning skills. Pg241 – 243 There is a strong evidence that academic performance as measured by grade point average was inversely associated with both official and self-reported criminality in nearly all investigations. Slow reading development was positively correlated with involvement in crime and delinquency. Theories the Criminological theories past to present. Essential Readings. Third edition. Francis T. Cullen and Robert Agnew. Roxbury Publishing Company LA California, Pg 5-8 Classical theory by Beccaria Central Thesis: Crime occur when the benefits outweigh the costs – when people pursue self-interest in the absence of effective punishments. Crime is a free-willed choice Positivist theory Crime is caused or determined by sociological factors Social Disorganization/Chicago School – Shaw an McKay, Sampson and Wilson, Raudenbush and Earls Disorganized communities cause crime because informal social controls break down and criminal cultures emerge. They lack the â€Å"collective efficacy† to fight crime and disorder. Strain/General Strain by Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin, Agnew When individuals cannot obtain success goals (e. g. , money, status in school), they experience strain or pressure. Under certain conditions, they are likely to respond to this strain through crime. The strains leading to crime, however, may not only be linked to goal blockage (or deprivation of valued stimuli0 but also to the presentation of noxious stimuli and the taking away of valued stimuli. Critical Theory by Bonger, Quinney, Currie and Colvin Inequality in material well-being creates conditions that lead to street crime and corporate crime.

Free Essays on In Conditions Of Uncertainty, People Revert To Habits And Routine

If, as Vaughan (1997:93) comments, â€Å"in conditions of uncertainty, people revert to habits and routine† is rational strategic decision-making possible? This essays deals with issues on rational strategic decision making, and how the decision making process can be hindered when the decision maker is faced with conditions of uncertainty. The term rational strategic management can, and has been interpreted in several different ways, however for the purpose of this essay the term will be used in the way described by Harrison (1954) â€Å"all that is necessary to make a given choice a rational one is the existence of an objective and selection of some alternative that, in the decision maker’s view, promises to meet the objective†. Meaning that a rational decision is simply one where the decision maker has chosen the most suitable of strategies for attaining any given goal. Much research has been carried out on the decision making process and how decision makers arrive at a solution. One of the earliest was carried out by Mintzberg, Raisinghi and Theoret (1976) who attempted to model the processes of strategic decision making and identified three phases the decision maker goes through before arriving at a conclusion. These are the (1) Identification Phase, (2) Development Phase and (3) The selection phase. Each of these can be broken down into further sub-routines (See fig 1). However there are a number of important assumptions in the rational decision making model. It assumes the problem is clear and unambiguous, the decision maker can identify all options and their viable alternatives, it assumes that the criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted and that the problem remains consistent throughout the process (the model formulated by Mintzberg et al, did attempt to include â€Å"recycles†, by which the decision maker returned to earli er phases, but not for this specific purpose), full information is available and ther... Free Essays on In Conditions Of Uncertainty, People Revert To Habits And Routine Free Essays on In Conditions Of Uncertainty, People Revert To Habits And Routine If, as Vaughan (1997:93) comments, â€Å"in conditions of uncertainty, people revert to habits and routine† is rational strategic decision-making possible? This essays deals with issues on rational strategic decision making, and how the decision making process can be hindered when the decision maker is faced with conditions of uncertainty. The term rational strategic management can, and has been interpreted in several different ways, however for the purpose of this essay the term will be used in the way described by Harrison (1954) â€Å"all that is necessary to make a given choice a rational one is the existence of an objective and selection of some alternative that, in the decision maker’s view, promises to meet the objective†. Meaning that a rational decision is simply one where the decision maker has chosen the most suitable of strategies for attaining any given goal. Much research has been carried out on the decision making process and how decision makers arrive at a solution. One of the earliest was carried out by Mintzberg, Raisinghi and Theoret (1976) who attempted to model the processes of strategic decision making and identified three phases the decision maker goes through before arriving at a conclusion. These are the (1) Identification Phase, (2) Development Phase and (3) The selection phase. Each of these can be broken down into further sub-routines (See fig 1). However there are a number of important assumptions in the rational decision making model. It assumes the problem is clear and unambiguous, the decision maker can identify all options and their viable alternatives, it assumes that the criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted and that the problem remains consistent throughout the process (the model formulated by Mintzberg et al, did attempt to include â€Å"recycles†, by which the decision maker returned to earli er phases, but not for this specific purpose), full information is available and ther...

Law of Evidence - Reliability and relevance Essay

Law of Evidence - Reliability and relevance - Essay Example Evidence can only be deemed to be relevant if it is used to prove or disprove a matter that is in issue before the court. Evidence adduced with the intention of causing the jury to disapprove of the defendant is generally inadmissible, unless it is properly presented as evidence of bad character to show the propensity of the defendant to a particular kind of crime. Since scientific evidence is a specific area of expertise it is essential that the person giving evidence relating to scientific findings is suitably qualified, and that the evidence can be relied upon in order to secure a conviction. It is not always easy to draw a distinction between a person who is giving an expert opinion as opposed to evidence of fact1 . The Criminal Procedure Rules 1998 (CPR) were reformed in order to restrict the usage of expert evidence2. CPR r 35.1 states that ‘expert evidence shall be restricted to that which is reasonably required to resolve the proceedings.’ One of the dangers asso ciated with the reliance of expert opinion is that miscarriages of justice may occur as a direct result. ... This case was very similar to R v Clark (no2) [2003]4 in which the evidence of the same expert used in the Cannings case was regarded as reliable, resulting in the conviction of Clark for the murder of her 2 children. Professor Meadow, the expert in these cases was at the time carrying out a government funded report into the causes of sudden infant death. At the trial Professor Meadow made the observation that the chances of 2 children dying of cot death within Clark’s family situation could be compared to the chances of 4 different horses winning the Grand National in consecutive years at odds of 80 to 1. As a result of the elevated status of Professor Meadow as an expert in this field the jury concluded that the deaths could not have been natural causes. The courts have struggled consistently with the testing of expert evidence as there is no compulsory requirement for accreditation of the qualifications of the expert. There is also a lack of training for judges and barriste rs in the understanding of expert evidence, as well as training in judging the reliability of such evidence. In a report conducted by the House of Commons into the reliability of expert forensic evidence the report expressed concern that when the Forensic Science Service moved to the private sector the police service would no longer be able to ask the FSS to ‘provide advice as to the reliability of forensic techniques5.’ At present there is no control over the testing of the reliability of expert witnesses, however, the Law Commission have recently tried to address this issue in the Criminal Evidence (experts) Bill which was published 22 March 20116. In this Bill it was recommended that a reliability based admissibility test should be established for

Financial Accounting and Reporting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Financial Accounting and Reporting - Essay Example 4. Customers Customers use financial information to assess the financial position of a company and its ability to supply goods or services stably for a long period. 5. Employees Employees need to know the profitability of their company, its ability to remunerate them in the long term and to ensure their job security (Elliott, 2008). LEGAL REQUIREMENTS ON ACCOUNTS PREPARATION The accounts must be submitted to the tax authorities, corporation tax should be on the basis of the company’s profits. This is done at the end of the financial year. The company’s accounts must be made public by filling them in the house of companies (Horngren, 2002). They must be submitted by the company within nine months after the financial year end. The accounts must be accurate and directors have a legal responsibility of ensuring that the accounts are accurate. The use of an accountant does not reduce the responsibility (Webster, 2004). The financial statements that must be prepared include; balance sheet, profit and loss account, notes to the accounts, director’s report and auditor’s report. The balance sheet must be signed by the director, and a printed name of the director must be included (Horngren, 2002). The accounts should be prepared in conformity of internationally accepted financial reporting standards. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARTNERSHIP AND SOLE TRADER ACCOUNTS A sole trader’s earnings are subject to tax in the self-employment category while a partnership is subject to corporation tax (Elliott, 2008). The accounts of a sole trader seize to exist upon death of the trader while those of a partnership continue to exist since it is a legal person. A partnerships’ accounts contain capital comprised of shares of stock which are categorized into preference and ordinary shares (Webster, 2004). A sole trader’s account contains capital raised from other sources like from personal savings or soft loans. The partnership has to file its leg al accounts with the state while a sole trader’s account need not to be filed with the state (Horngren, 2004). A sole trader accounts mostly include incomplete financial records while a partnership must prepare financial statements in conformity with the statutory requirements. The accounts of a sole trader are usually voluntarily prepared while those of a partnership are a statutory requirement. ?'000' Stock ?'000' Balance b/d 4000          Cash balance 250 Balance c/f 4250       4250    4250    Bank Balance b/d 3310 Stock 250          Balance c/f 3060       3310    3310    Telephone Balance b/d 580          Accruals 82 Balance c/f 662       662    662    Advertising Balance b/d 3300 Prepaid 337       Balance c/f 2963    3300    3300             Wages Balance b/d 6650       Accrual 123 Balance c/f 6773    6773    6773             Motor Expenses Balance b/d 1460 Prepaid 42       Balance c/f 1418    1460    1460             Accountancy Fee Balance b/d 326 balance c/f 326    326    326             Debtors    Balance b/d 4500 depreciation 225       Balance c/f 4275    4500    4500             Doubtful Debts Balance b/d 120       Debtors 225 Balance c/f 345    345    345             Fixed Assets Balance b/d 24000 Depreciation 7700       Charge 4075       Balance c/d 12225    24000    24000             Depreciation Balance b/d 7700       Charge 4075 Balance c/d 11775    11775    11775 sherwood Trial balance As at 31.1.2013 Dr ?'000' Cr ?'000' Stock 4250 Sales 43000 Sales returns 980